Cheap essay writing sercice. If you need professional help with completing any kind of homework, Solution Essays is the right place to get it. Whether you are looking for essay, coursework, research, or term paper help, or with any other assignments, it is no problem for us Cheap essay writing sercice. If you need professional help with completing any kind of homework, Solution Essays is the right place to get it. Whether you are looking for essay, coursework, research, or term paper help, or with any other assignments, it is no problem for us Oct 09, · A recent fMRI study of the dot probe task presented angry (threat-related) and happy and neutral (threat-unrelated) faces to female survivors of multiple traumas who either did or did not have PTSD (Fani et al., ). Within the PTSD group but not within the control group, bias toward threatening faces correlated positively with activation in
Emotion and cognition interactions in PTSD: a review of neurocognitive and neuroimaging studies
Try out PMC Labs and tell us what you think. Learn More. Posttraumatic stress disorder PTSD is a psychiatric syndrome that develops after exposure to terrifying and life-threatening events including warfare, motor-vehicle accidents, and physical and sexual assault. The emotional experience of psychological trauma can have long-term cognitive effects.
The hallmark symptoms of PTSD involve alterations to cognitive processes such as memory, attention, planning, and problem solving, underscoring the detrimental impact that negative emotionality has on cognitive functioning. As such, an important challenge for PTSD researchers and treatment providers is to understand the dynamic interplay dissertation study eyewitness identification task emotion and cognition.
Contemporary cognitive models of PTSD theorize that a preponderance of information processing resources are allocated toward threat detection and interpretation of innocuous stimuli as threatening, narrowing one's attentional focus at the expense of other cognitive operations. Decades of research have shown support for these cognitive models of PTSD using a variety of tasks and methodological approaches.
The primary goal of this review is to summarize the latest neurocognitive and neuroimaging research of emotion-cognition interactions in PTSD. To directly assess the influence of emotion on cognition and vice versa, the studies reviewed employed challenge tasks that included both cognitive and emotional components.
The findings provide evidence for memory and attention deficits in PTSD that are often associated with changes in functional brain activity. The results are reviewed to provide future directions for research that may direct better and more effective treatments for PTSD.
Stress and anxiety serve the important functions of preparing an individual to meet the demands of everyday life and increasing dissertation study eyewitness identification task chance for survival. It is therefore not surprising that arousing and emotionally salient stimuli readily capture attention and have a powerful influence on how information is processed, encoded, stored, and retrieved.
However, extreme levels of stress can have a devastating effect on healthy functioning. Nowhere is this demonstrated more clearly than in psychiatric disorders such as posttraumatic stress disorder PTSD.
PTSD develops after exposure to terrifying and life threatening events and is characterized by intense reliving of the traumatic event through disruptive memories and nightmares, avoidance of reminders of the event, and hypervigilance toward potential threats in the environment. These hallmark symptoms involve alterations to cognitive processes such as memory, attention, planning, and problem solving, underscoring the impact that emotion has on cognitive functioning.
Influential cognitive theories of PTSD emphasize the interaction between emotion and cognition in contributing to the symptoms of PTSD. These theories contend that psychopathology arises when emotional stress alters cognitive networks that process information about perception, meaning, and action responses toward executing goals Lang, ; Foa and Kozak, ; Chemtob et al.
In PTSD, networks representing information about fear become highly elaborated and accessible, which has implications for encoding and retrieval of information. For instance, an elaborated fear structure may lower one's capacity to process non-threat related information, leading to attentional bias toward potential threats in the environment Chemtob et al.
Furthermore, nodes of the fear network representing threat arousal may predispose an individual to interpret even innocuous stimuli as threatening. Intrusive memories result from spreading activation of the threat arousal node to related threat nodes, while nodes representing opposing alternatives become inhibited.
In this review, we summarize the latest research examining the dynamic interplay between emotions and cognitive processes in PTSD. We begin with an overview of the criteria that must be met for a PTSD diagnosis. Next, we separately review studies that examine the effect of emotion on cognitive functions and those that examine the effect of top-down cognitive control processes on emotion, following this useful distinction put forth by Dolcos et al.
Finally, dissertation study eyewitness identification task, we provide a summary of the reviewed literature and discuss open questions in the field, dissertation study eyewitness identification task.
To directly assess emotion-cognition interactions in PTSD, we focus our review on studies employing a challenge task in which both emotional and neutral stimuli were presented.
Such dissertation study eyewitness identification task may lend themselves to better reproduce conditions in everyday life in dissertation study eyewitness identification task emotions influence task performance, dissertation study eyewitness identification task.
Other recent papers have comprehensively reviewed studies that employed only neutral stimuli i. As outlined in the current Diagnostic and Statistical Manual DSM-IV-TRPTSD develops after exposure to a Criterion A1 event, dissertation study eyewitness identification task as involving actual or threatened death, serious injury, or threat to one's physical integrity American Psychiatric Association, To meet Criterion A1, the individual must have been directly involved in the traumatic event, witnessed the event, or learned about the death or serious injury of a family member or close friend.
The individual must have responded to the traumatic event with intense fear, helplessness, or horror referred to as Criterion A2 although future conceptualizations of PTSD may omit this criterion Friedman et al. The symptoms of PTSD can be broadly divided into three symptom clusters, B, C, and D. Symptom cluster B involves persistent and unwanted recollections of the traumatic event, dissertation study eyewitness identification task, intrusive memories of the event, and dissociative flashbacks.
The individual re-experiences the event despite being removed from the traumatic situation and context. These symptoms can be frightening and highly disruptive of activities of daily living. Cluster C involves persistent avoidance of people, places, and activities that serve as reminders of the traumatic event, emotional numbing, difficulty experiencing a full range of emotions, and diminished expectations of one's ability to lead a long, fulfilling life.
Finally, dissertation study eyewitness identification task, symptom cluster D involves symptoms of hyperarousal including difficulty with sleep, irritability and anger, poor concentration, hypervigilance, and exaggerated startle response. The symptoms of PTSD must be present for more than one month and cause dissertation study eyewitness identification task distress or impairment in social and occupational functioning in order to differentiate the disorder from transient and acute stress reactions.
The typical course of PTSD begins with the development of symptoms within 6 months of the onset of the traumatic event, although delays in symptom occurrence can occur, dissertation study eyewitness identification task. Individuals whose symptoms persist for more than 3 months are diagnosed with chronic PTSD, which is associated with a host of poor health outcomes, including heart disease, obesity, alcohol abuse, and lowered perceptions of general health Dobie et al.
Decades of emotional memory research in healthy individuals suggests that emotional information tends to be remembered better than neutral information Christianson, ; Kensinger, However, the extent to which emotion provides a facilitating effect on memory encoding and retrieval in PTSD is unclear.
Cognitive models of PTSD predict that patients remember emotional information better due to a bias toward Chemtob et al. A variety of behavioral and neuroimaging memory paradigms have been employed to examine the extent to which patients with PTSD remember emotional information better than neutral information in comparison to healthy or trauma-exposed controls. Consistent with the notion that emotion enhances memory, there is evidence for a memory advantage in patients vs, dissertation study eyewitness identification task.
controls for negative threat information Vrana et al. In these studies, word lists were presented with either incidental or intentional encoding instructions and participants were subsequently instructed to recall as many words as they could from the lists. Results showed that patients either remembered more emotional words than controls or that memory performance for emotional vs. neutral words improved to a greater extent than controls.
However, memories are often subject to a wide range of distortions and biases that impact accurate recollection Schacter, One of the most controversial topics in the field of traumatic stress is that of the accuracy of recovered memories, prompting PTSD researchers to examine how memory for negative and traumatic information fares in false memory dissertation study eyewitness identification task such dissertation study eyewitness identification task the Deese—Roediger—McDermott DRM paradigm Roediger and McDermott, In the DRM paradigm, participants are presented with a list of words that are semantically related to a critical non-presented word lure.
The critical lure is often falsely remembered as being previously presented on subsequent recall and recognition tests and may reflect gist-based encoding rather than encoding of specific details Brainerd and Reyna, In PTSD, two of the three DRM studies employing verbal lists indeed reported greater false alarms to critical lures in patients with PTSD than control participants Bremner et al.
However, a third study employing the DRM paradigm did dissertation study eyewitness identification task report greater false alarms in patients Zoellner et al. It is unclear why these studies found differential effects, although it is possible that the false memory effect is more likely to be elicited when trauma-specific material, as opposed to generally negative material, is presented.
Studies employing paradigms other than the DRM but including trauma-specific material have reported greater false alarms in PTSD Hayes et al, dissertation study eyewitness identification task. Negative arousal can alter the type of information that is encoded and retrieved. Neurohormones including norepinephrine and cortisol play a critical role in the fear and stress response by mobilizing the body's response to the stressor via the hypothalamus-pituitary-adrenal axis HPA and amygdala, among several other key regions.
Norepinephrine has been shown to facilitate emotional memory for a review see Ferry et al. However, emotional memory may not be uniformly enhanced during high levels of arousal. A recent study examined the extent to which patients with PTSD showed this memory trade-off effect i. backgrounds in comparison to a trauma-exposed control group and a healthy unexposed group Mickley Steinmetz et al.
The findings showed that the PTSD and the healthy non-trauma exposed group exhibited a greater memory trade-off effect for emotional items than the trauma-exposed-no-PTSD group.
Although further research is required, these results suggest that patients with PTSD do not exhibit greater tunnel memory than healthy control participants.
Distortions in memory have been observed during autobiographical retrieval in PTSD. Autobiographical memories represent personally experienced recollections and knowledge about oneself Conway and Pleydell-Pearce, dissertation study eyewitness identification task, and may be key in understanding the accessibility and completeness of traumatic memories McNally et al.
Two experimental studies have shown that during the recollection of personal past events, individuals with PTSD tend to recall personal memories with very few details and very little specificity McNally et al.
However, the difficulty with retrieving detailed personal information does not appear to be specific to traumatic memories but extends to neutral and positive events.
Research on the neural underpinnings emotion and memory suggests that the benefit of emotion on memory occurs in part via interactions between the amygdala and hippocampus. According to dissertation study eyewitness identification task modulation hypothesisemotional events are remembered better than neutral events due to the amygdala's influence on other medial temporal lobe structures including the hippocampus McGaugh et al. Support dissertation study eyewitness identification task the modulation hypothesis has been reported in humans using fMRI, showing greater activity in the amygdala and hippocampus for successfully remembered vs.
forgotten emotional memories Dolcos et al. However, a key question is whether medial temporal lobe structures interact in PTSD as the modulation hypothesis would predict. Whereas the majority of imaging studies have shown increased amygdala activity in PTSD Pissiota et al. To examine the role of the amygdala and hippocampus in emotional memory formation in PTSD, researchers have employed the subsequent memory paradigm, in which neural activity is measured at encoding for items that are probed for memory success after a delay.
Differences in encoding activity for successfully remembered and forgotten material is evaluated dissertation study eyewitness identification task identify brain regions subserving successful memory operations Paller and Dissertation study eyewitness identification task, Hayes et al. Dissertation study eyewitness identification task this study, patients with PTSD produced greater false alarms for trauma-specific negative information, suggesting that the reduced medial temporal lobe activity may underlie memory distortions.
However, Brohawn et al. forgotten stimuli a control group was not included in this study and therefore comparisons were made within the PTSD group. Two dissertation study eyewitness identification task differences may explain the discrepant results among studies. In the latter two studies, there were no behavioral differences in memory performance between patients and controls or between emotional dissertation study eyewitness identification task neutral information, and general negative stimuli were used whereas Hayes and colleagues used trauma-specific combat stimuli in recent war veterans.
Therefore, although these studies report mixed results, the findings may provide more support for the notion that false memory, and associated decreases in neural signal in the amygdala and hippocampus, is elicited primarily for trauma-specific information in PTSD. In summary, the research findings of explicit memory performance in PTSD are decidedly complex.
The evidence suggests that recall of gist-based negative information may be enhanced in PTSD, whereas information about specific details and contextual information appears to be diminished. This is consistent with the notion that cognitive resources may be preferentially allocated to process threat information at the expense of neutral or non-threat related information. An important consideration is whether memory alterations occur for all types of emotional information or only for trauma-specific information.
Although there are mixed findings in this regard, overall there is stronger evidence that false memories are elicited mainly for trauma-specific information, dissertation study eyewitness identification task. Research regarding the neural correlates of memory in PTSD is still in its infancy, but the abnormalities observed in the amygdala and hippocampus suggests that the symptoms of PTSD are associated with disturbances in memory encoding and retrieval.
Pavlovian fear conditioning and extinction has been a fruitful model of fear memory in PTSD. Fear conditioning paradigms involve the repeated presentation of a neutral conditioned stimulus CS such as an auditory tone or a colored light, followed immediately by an aversive unconditioned stimulus US such as a finger shock.
Extinction of the fear memory occurs when the CS is subsequently and repeatedly presented in dissertation study eyewitness identification task absence of the US. This experimental paradigm models a crucial aspect of emotion-cognition interactions in PTSD: individuals with PTSD repeatedly show elevated fear responses to trauma reminders, even when those reminders occur in a safe context i.
Some researchers see a parallel between this clinical phenomenon and a failure of fear extinction or fear extinction recall e. Early in the PTSD fear conditioning and extinction literature, fear responsivity was quantified as physiological responses such as skin conductance responsivity and heart rate, dissertation study eyewitness identification task.
367 Lecture 16.5 Eyewitness Memory
, time: 12:54Emotion and cognition interactions in PTSD: a review of neurocognitive and neuroimaging studies
Oct 09, · A recent fMRI study of the dot probe task presented angry (threat-related) and happy and neutral (threat-unrelated) faces to female survivors of multiple traumas who either did or did not have PTSD (Fani et al., ). Within the PTSD group but not within the control group, bias toward threatening faces correlated positively with activation in Cheap essay writing sercice. If you need professional help with completing any kind of homework, Solution Essays is the right place to get it. Whether you are looking for essay, coursework, research, or term paper help, or with any other assignments, it is no problem for us Cheap essay writing sercice. If you need professional help with completing any kind of homework, Solution Essays is the right place to get it. Whether you are looking for essay, coursework, research, or term paper help, or with any other assignments, it is no problem for us
No comments:
Post a Comment